Ingredient Substitutions
Courtesy of FOOD REFLECTIONS Newsletter
University of Nebraska Cooperative Extension in Lancaster County and one other source identified in context belowShe laughed as she told the story on herself, but you could tell she was disappointed. She had baked fruit breads as gifts for her friends. She hadn't done much baking and this was a real labor of love. The gifts were never given.
It was such a small amount of an ingredient she was missing. And it was late. She wanted to get her baking done. Surely it couldn't matter. But it did.
The next time (if there was a next time!) she'd know to add the baking powder to the recipe.
Often for lack of an ingredient, a recipe is ruined or an extra trip to the store is required. Sometimes, you need to buy a large container of an ingredient for just a teaspoon or two needed in a recipe.
To the rescue: ingredient substitutions! Several Internet discussion groups of dietitians, home economists, chefs and other food professionals were asked their most helpful ingredient substitutions, favorite Internet links and other food substitution resources they find useful. The response was tremendous! Read, enjoy and benefit from their suggestions.
Basic Ingredient Substitutions
Here are some of the suggestions cited most frequently. The substitution tips for which there was the most general consensus and which used the most common ingredients are listed. Following these suggestions are several Internet and book resources that give MANY, MANY additional substitution ideas.
Your final product made with the substituted ingredient may differ slightly from the original food, but still be acceptable in flavor, texture and appearance.
Allspice
Amount: 1 teaspoon
Substitute: 1/2 teaspoon cinnamon plus 1/2 teaspoon ground cloves
Apple Pie Spice
Amount: 1 teaspoon
Substitute: 1/2 teaspoon cinnamon plus 1/4 teaspoon nutmeg plus 1/8 teaspoon cardamom
Baking Powder, Double-Acting
Amount: 1 teaspoon
Substitute: 1/4 teaspoon baking soda plus 5/8 teaspoon cream of tartar
Baking Soda
There is NO substitute for baking soda
Butter
Amount: 1 cup
Substitute:
- 1 cup margarine (Note from Chet: I never use margarine)- 1 cup vegetable shortening (for baking)
- An equal amount of oil can be substituted for a similar portion of MELTED butter if the recipe specifies using MELTED butter.
TIP 1: According to the National Association of Margarine Manufacturers, you can tell "if the product is regular margarine by checking the Nutrition Facts: a one tablespoon serving will have 100 calories." Products that contain less than 80 percent fat often give the fat percentage on the front of the package.
If the margarine is labeled "light," "lower fat," "reduced fat," "reduced calorie/diet" or "fat-free" or is called a "vegetable oil spread," you may be less successful substituting it for butter OR for regular margarine in baking and in some cooking procedures. These products are higher in water and lower in fat content and won't perform in the same way as regular butter or margarine.
For additional information about using the various forms of margarine in recipes, check the Web site of the National Association of Margarine Manufacturers: www.margarine.org/howtousemargarine.html
TIP 2: There is no standard procedure to substitute liquid oil for solid shortening in cooking. Oil is 100 percent fat, while butter, margarine and other solid shortenings are lower in fat on a volume-for-volume basis.
Also, for some recipes, solid shortening helps incorporate air into the batter when it is whipped with other ingredients such as sugar and eggs. If you try to whip these ingredients with oil, your baked product is likely to be more compact and oily in texture. Your most successful substitution occurs if your recipe calls for MELTED butter, in which case you can usually substitute an equal amount of oil.
Buttermilk
Amount: 1 cup
Substitute: 1 tablespoon lemon juice or vinegar plus enough regular milk to make 1 cup (allow to stand 5 minutes)
Chili Sauce
Amount: 1 cup
Substitute: 1 cup tomato sauce, 1/4 cup brown sugar, 2 tablespoons vinegar, 1/4 teaspoon cinnamon, dash of ground cloves and dash of allspice
Chocolate, Unsweetened
Amount: 1 ounce
Substitute: 3 tablespoons cocoa plus 1 tablespoon butter or regular margarine or vegetable oil
Cornstarch (for thickening)
Amount: 1 tablespoon
Substitute: 2 tablespoons flourTIP: Liquids thickened with cornstarch will be somewhat translucent while flour gives a more opaque appearance. Cornstarch will thicken a liquid almost immediately. A flour-based sauce or gravy must be cooked longer to thicken and will have a floury taste if undercooked. Joy of Cooking cookbook (Scribner, 1997) advises when using flour as a substitution for cornstarch in sauces and gravies, that you simmer it for about 3 minutes AFTER it has thickened to help avoid a raw taste of flour.
Cornstarch-thickened liquids are more likely to thin if overheated or cooked too long. Regardless of whether you use cornstarch or flour, mix it with a little cold water or other cold liquid, about two parts liquid to one part thickener, before adding it to the rest of the liquid . (Note: when you mix flour with fat to make a roux for use as a thickener, you would not dissolve it in liquid first.)
Cream, Whipping
Amount:1 cup unwhipped
Substitute: If you wish to use a commercial pre-whipped whipped cream or whipped cream substitute rather than whip your own cream, use the guideline that 1 cup UNWHIPPED whipping cream expands to 2 cups when WHIPPED. For example, if your recipe called for 1 cup of cream to make whipped cream, you could substitute 2 cups of an already whipped product.
Cream of Tartar
Amount:1 teaspoon
Substitute: 2 teaspoons lemon juice or vinegar.
Egg
Amount: 1 whole egg
Substitute:
- 1/4 cup egg substitute (examples include: Egg Beaters, Second Nature, Scramblers); check label for specific directions- 1/4 cup silken tofu pureed
- Reconstituted powdered eggs; follow package directions
- 2 tablespoons mayonnaise (suitable for use in cake batter). NOTE: If you type "mayonnaise cake recipe" into your favorite Internet search engine, you'll find several recipes for cakes made with mayonnaise and NO eggs. This may help you decide if this substitution will work for your cake.
- 1/2 teaspoon baking powder plus 1 tablespoon vinegar plus 1 tablespoon liquid (for baking use only)
- 3 tablespoons mayonnaise
- 1/2 a banana mashed with 1/2 teaspoon baking powder
- 1 tablespoon powdered flax seed soaked in 3 tablespoons water
- 1 tablespoon soy flour plus 1 tablespoon water
TIP: If you don't use eggs very often, you may find it helpful to keep some powdered eggs on hand.
Flour, All-Purpose White Flour
Amount: 1 cup
Substitute: 1/2 cup whole wheat flour plus 1/2 cup all-purpose flour.TIP: It's generally recommended that you replace no more than half the all-purpose white flour with whole wheat flour. Too much whole wheat flour in a recipe calling for all-purpose flour might result in a reduced volume and a heavier product.
Flour, Cake
Amount: 1 cup
Substitute: 1 cup minus 2 tablespoons all-purpose flour
Flour, Self-Rising
Amount: 1 cup
Substitute: 1 cup minus 2 teaspoons all-purpose flour plus 1 1/2 teaspoons baking powder and 1/2 teaspoon salt
Garlic
Amount: 1 small clove
Substitute:
- 1/8 teaspoon garlic powder or
- 1/8 teaspoon instant minced garlic or
- 1/4 teaspoon garlic salt (reduce salt in recipe by 1/8 teaspoon)
Herbs, Fresh
Amount: 1 tablespoon, finely cut
Substitute:
- 1 teaspoon dried leaf herbs
- 1/2 teaspoon ground dried herbs
Lemon Zest (fresh grated lemon peel)
Amount: 1 teaspoon
Substitute: 1/2 teaspoon lemon extract
Marshmallows, Miniature
Amount: 1 cup
Substitute: 10 large marshmallows
Mayonnaise (for use in salads and salad dressings)
Amount: 1 cup
Substitute:
- 1 cup sour cream
- 1 cup yogurt
- 1 cup cottage cheese pureed in a blender
- Or use any of the above for part of the mayonnaise
Mustard, Dry (in cooked mixtures)
Amount: 1 teaspoon
Substitute: 1 tablespoon prepared mustard
Onion
Amount: 1 small or 1/4 cup chopped, fresh onion
Substitute: 1 tablespoon instant minced onionTIP: Dried onion may be added directly to moist foods such as soups, gravies, sauces and salad dressings. You may need to rehydrate it with a little water before adding it to drier foods. Check package directions -- one brand advises adding an equal amount of water and letting the dried onion stand 5 to 10 minutes.
Pasta (substituting one for another)
Amount: 4 cups COOKED
Substitute:The National Pasta Association suggests these substitution ratios.
Check www.ilovepasta.org/faqs.html#Q10 for more information.- 8 ounces of UNCOOKED elbow macaroni, medium shells, rotini, twists, spirals, wagon wheels, bow ties, mostaccioli, penne, radiatore, rigatoni, spaghetti, angel hair, linguine, vermicelli and fettuccine all produce about 4 cups COOKED pasta
- Use about twice as much UNCOOKED egg noodles to provide 4 cups COOKED pasta. Approximately 8 ounces UNCOOKED egg noodles equal 2 1/2 cups COOKED noodles.
Pumpkin Pie Spice
Amount: 1 teaspoon
Substitute: 1/2 teaspoon cinnamon plus 1/4 ground teaspoon ginger plus 1/8 teaspoon ground allspice plus 1/8 teaspoon ground nutmeg
Rice
Amount: Any amount
Substitute: Most rice products will substitute for each other on a fairly equal basis in recipes; however, their cooking times and the amount of liquid needed may vary. If possible, choose a rice with a comparable grain length for the closest match. Visit the USA Rice Federation's Rice Cafe to learn more about cooking with the different forms of rice: www.ricecafe.com
Rum
Amount: any amount
Substitute: 1 part rum extract plus 3 parts water. For example: for 1/4 cup rum, substitute 1 tablespoon rum extract plus 3 tablespoons water.
Shortening
Amount: 1 cup
Substitute: 1 cup softened butter OR 1 cup margarine minus 1/2 teaspoon salt from recipe.
Sugar, Confectioners' or Powdered
Amount: 1 cup
Substitute: 1 cup granulated sugar plus 1 tablespoon cornstarch; process in a food processor using the metal blade attachment until it's well blended and powdery.
Tomato Juice
Amount: 1 cup
Substitute: 1/2 cup tomato sauce plus 1/2 cup water
Tomato Soup
Amount: 10 3/4 ounce can
Substitute: 1 cup tomato sauce plus 1/4 cup water
Wine, Red
Amount: Any
Substitute: The same amount of grape juice or cranberry juice
Wine, White
Amount: Any
Substitute:The same amount of apple juice or white grape juice
Yeast, Compressed
Amount: 1 cake (3/5 ounce)
Substitute:
- 1 package (1/4 ounce) active dry yeast
- Scant 2 1/2 teaspoons loose active dry yeastTIP: For more information on conversions among types of yeast, check the Red Star Yeast site at: www.redstaryeast.com/faq.htm#CONVERSION
Emergency Ingredient Substitutions
Courtesy of Robbie's Kitchen
INGREDIENT AMOUNT SUBSTITUTION Allspice 1 tsp. 1/2 tsp. cinnamon and 1/2 tsp. ground cloves Apple Pie Spice 1 tsp. 1/2 tsp. cinnamon, 1/4 tsp. nutmeg, 1/8 tsp. cardamon Arrowroot 1 1/2 tsp. 1 Tbls. flour 1 1/2 tsp. cornstarch Baking Powder 1 tsp. 1/3 tsp. baking soda and 1/2 tsp. cream of tartar Bay Leaf 1 whole 1/4 tsp. crushed Bread 1 slice dry 1/3 cup dry bread crumbs 1 slice soft 3/4 cup soft bread crumbs Broth, Beef or Chicken 1 cup 1 bullion cube disolved in 1 cup boiling water 1 envalope powdered broth base disolved in 1 cup boiling water 1 1/2 tsp. powdered broth base disolved in boiling water Butter 1 cup 7/8 cup lard plus 1/2 tsp. salt Buttermilk 1 cup 1 cup plain yogurt 1 cup milk plus 1 Tbls. white vinegar or lemon juice 1 cup milk plus 1 3/4 tsp. cream of tartar Chives, chopped 2 tsp. 2 tsp. green onion tops, finely chopped Chocolate Chips 1 oz. 1 ounce sweet cooking chocolate Chocolate, unsweetened 1 oz. or square 3 Tbls. cocoa plus 1 Tbls. fat Cocoa 1/4 cup 1 oz. square unsweetened chocolate (decrease fat in recipe by 1/2 Tbls.) Coconut Cream 1 cup 1 cup whipping cream Coconut Milk 1 cup 1 cup whole milk Corn 1 doz. ears 2 1/2 cup cooked corn Cornmeal, self-rising 1 cup 7/8 cup plain, 1 1/2 Tbls. baking powder, and 1/2 tsp. salt Corn Syrup 1 cup 1 1/4 cup light brown sugar and 1/3 cup water 7/8 cup honey (baked goods will brown more) Corn Syrup, Dark 1 cup 3/4 cup light corn syrup and 1/4 cup light molasses Cornstarch (thickening) 1 Tbls. 2 Tbls. all purpose flour 2 Tbls. granular tapioca Cracker Crumbs 3/4 cup 1 cup dry bread crumbs Cream, Heavy 1 cup 3/4 cup milk and 1/3 cup butter or margerine (if used for baking) 1 cup evaporated milk, undiluted Cream, Light 1 cup 3/4 cup milk and 3 Tbls. butter or margerine (if used for baking) 1 cup evaporated milk, undiluted Cream, Whipped Chill a 13 ounce can of evaprated milk until ice crystals form. Add 1 tsp. lemon juice. Whip until stiff. Dates 1 lb. 2 1/2 cup pitted Dill Plant, Fresh or Dried 3 heads 1 Tbls. dill weed Egg, whole, uncooked 1 large, 3 Tbls. 3 Tbls. and 1 tsp. thawed frozen egg 2 1/2 Tbls. sifted, dry whole egg powder and 2 1/2 Tbls. lukewarm water 2 yolks and 1 Tbls. water (for cookies) 2 yolks (in custards, cream fillings, and similar mixtures) Eggs, uncooked 1 cup 5 large eggs 6 medium eggs Egg White 1 large, 2 Tbls. 2 tsp. thawed frozen egg whites 2 Tbls. sifted, dry egg white powder and 2 Tbls. warm water 1 cup 8 large egg whites Egg Yolk 1 yolk, 1 1/2 Tbls. 3 1/2 Tbls. thawed frozen egg yolk 2 Tbls. sifted, dried egg yolk 1 cup 12 large egg yolks Flour, All-Purpose (for thickening) 1 Tbls. 1 1/2 tsp. cornstarch 1 Tbls. granular tapioca 1 Tbls. waxy rice flour 2 Tbls. browned flour 1 1/2 Tbls. whole wheat flour 1 Tbls. quick-cooking tapioca Flour, All-Purpose 1 cup, sifted 1 cup and 2 Tbls. cake flour 1 cup rolled oats, crushed 1/2 cup cornmeal, bran, or rice flour and 1/2 cup all-purpose flour 1 cup rye or rice flour 1/4 cup soybean flour and 3/4 cup all-purpose flour 1 lb. 4 cups sifted 3 1/3 cups unsifted Flour, Cake 1 cup sifted 1 cup minus 2 tsp. all-purpose flour, sifted Flour, Self-Rising 1 cup 1 cup minus 2 tsp. all-purpose flour, 1 1/2 tsp. baking powder, and 1/2 tsp. salt Fruit, Fresh, Cut Up 1 1/2 cups 16 ounce can, drained Garlic 1 clove, small 1/8 tsp. garlic powder Garlic Salt 1 tsp. 1/8 tsp. garlic powder and 7/8 tsp. salt Gelatin, Flavored 3 oz. 1 Tbls. plain gelatin and 2 cup fruit juice Ginger 1/8 tsp. 1 tsp. candied ginger, rinsed in water to remove sugar, then finley cut 1 Tbls. raw ginger Herbs, fresh 1 Tbls. chopped 1/2 tsp. dried crushed herb Honey 1 cup 1 1/4 cup sugar and 1/4 cup water Horseradish 1 Tbls. 2 Tbls. bottled fresh Ketchup 1 cup 1 cup tomato sauce 1/4 cup brown sugar, and 2 Tbls. vinegar Lemon Juice 1 tsp. 1/2 tsp. white vinegar Lemon Peel, dried 1 tsp. 1 to 2 tsp. fresh grated 1/2 tsp. lemon extract Lime 1 med. 1 1/2 to 2 Tbls. juice Maple Sugar (grated and packed) 1/2 cup 1 cup maple syrup 1 Tbls. white, granulated sugar Marshmallows, mini 1 cup 8-10 regular Mayonnaise (for salad dressings) 1 cup 1/2 cup plain yogurt and 1/2 cup mayonnaise 1 cup sour cream 1 cup cottage cheese, pureed Milk, skim 1 cup 4 to 5 Tbls. non-fat dry milk powder and enough water to make 1 cup 1/2 cup evaporated milk and 1/2 cup water Milk, Sweetened, Condensed 1 can Heat the following until butter melts and sugar is disolved: 1/3 cup + 2 Tbls. evaporated milk, 1 cup sugar, and 3 Tbls. butter Add 1 cup + 2 Tbls. dry milk to 1/2 cup warm water. Add 3/4 cup sugar and 3 Tbls. melted butter. Stir until smooth. Milk, Whole 1 cup 1 cup reconstituted non-fat dried milk abd 2 Tbls. melted butter 1/2 cup evaporated milk and 1/2 cup water 4 Tbls whole dry milk and 1 cup water (for use in baking) Mushrooms, Fresh 1 Lb. 2 to 3 cups whole 5 cups sliced (1) 10 oz. can Mushrooms, Canned 4 oz. 2 cups sliced fresh 6 Tbls. whole dried mushrooms Mustard, Dry 1 tsp. 1 Tbls. prepared mustard Onion, Fresh 1 small rehydrate 1 Tbls. instant minced onion Onion Powder 1 Tbls. 1 medium onion, chopped 4 Tbls. fresh chopped onion Onions 1 Lb. 3 large onions 2 to 2 1/2 cup chopped Orange Peel, Dried 1 Tbls. 2 to 3 Tbls. grated fresh orange peel grated peel of 1 med. orange 2 tsp. 1 tsp. orange extract Parsley, Dried 1 tsp. 3 tsp. fresh parsley, chopped Peppers, green bell 1 Tbls. dried 3 Tbls. fresh green pepper, chopped Peppers, red bell 1 Tbls. dried 3 Tbls. fresh red pepper, chopped 2 Tbls. chopped pimento Peppermint, dried 1 Tbls. 1/4 cup chopped fresh mint Pimento 2 Tbls. 1 Tbls. dried red bell pepper, rehydrated 3 Tbls. fresh red bell pepper, chopped Pumpkin Pie Spice 1 tsp. 1/2 tsp. cinnamon, 1/4 tsp. ginger, 1/8 tsp. allspice, 1/8 tsp. nutmeg Shortening, Melted 1 cup 1 cup cooking oil Shortening, Solid 1 cup 1 cup minus 2 Tbls. lard 1 1/8 cup butter (decrease salt in recipe by 1/2 tsp.) Sour Cream 1 cup 3/4 cup buttermilk and 1/3 cup butter or margerine 1 cup plain yogurt 3/4 cup milk, 3/4 tsp. lemon juice, and 1/3 cup butter or margerine Spearmint, Dried 1 Tbls. 1/4 cup fresh chopped mint Sugar, Brown 1 cup packed 1 cup granular sugar 1 Lb. 2 1/2 cups firmly packed Sugar, powdered 1 Lb. 2 3/4 cups Sugar, granulated 1 Lb. 2 1/4 cups 1 tsp. 1/8 tsp. non-caloretic sweetener solution 1 cup 1 1/2 cup corn syrup (decrease liquid in recipe by 1/4 cup) 1 1/3 cup molasses (decrease liquid in recipe by 1/3 cup) 1 cup powdered sugar 1 cup brown sugar, firmly packed 3/4 cup honey (decrease liquid in recipe by 1/4 cup; for each cup of honey used, add 1/2 tsp. baking soda) Tapioca, granular 1 Tbls. 2 Tbls. pearl tapioca Tomato Juice 1 cup 1/2 cup tomato sauce and 1/2 cup water Worcestershire Sauce 1 tsp. 1 tsp. bottled steak sauce Yogurt, Plain 1 cup 1 cup buttermilk 1 cup cottage cheese, pureed 1 cup sour cream
Ingredient Substitution Internet LinksFor MORE ingredient substitution ideas, check these Internet links to materials developed by educational organizations or recommended by various food and nutrition educators. For easy access to these links, bookmark this FOOD REFLECTIONS article (lancaster.unl.edu/food/ftfeb01.htm).
For STILL MORE substitution ideas, put the words "food substitutions" or "ingredient substitutions" into your favorite Internet search engine.
As you check out these links, be aware that an ingredient may not substitute for ALL the functions of another. For example, as you learned earlier, it's best to substitute an oil for a solid shortening such as butter ONLY when the recipe calls for a MELTED form of the solid shortening. If you're uncertain if the substitution will work and you haven't started mixing things together, you might consider making something else. Or making a quick run to the store.
(NOTE: The following links are provided for your general information. The information provided via these sites has not been formally evaluated and inclusion of these links does not constitute an endorsement of any organization. Nor is disapproval implied of sites not mentioned. The links provided are maintained by their respective organizations and they are solely responsible for their content and policies.)
Ingredient Substitutions
www.ext.nodak.edu/extpubs/yf/foods/he198w.htmThis listing by North Dakota State University Extension is very comprehensive on everything from Allspice to Yogurt.
Ingredient Substitutions and Food Yields
www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/fntr2/1730.pdfNOTE: This publication requires Adobe Acrobat Reader software to read -- if you don't have this on your computer, a free version is available at: http://www.adobe.com/products/acrobat/readstep2.html
The "Yield Equivalencies" section of this sheet from Kansas State University Cooperative Extension Service is especially helpful if your recipe calls for a specific weight and you would like to know the equivalent amount as measured in cups of the food. If you have an older recipe that calls for an amount like a number 2 or number 303 can, check the "Common Can Sizes" chart at the end of this publication for an equivalent weight and amount in cups.
Herbs and Spices
www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/foods/348-907/348-907.htmlVirginia Cooperative Extension's site is especially helpful in giving suggestions on reducing the fat, sodium and sugar in foods and instead using herbs and spices for flavor.
Ingredient Substitution
www.ext.usu.edu/publica/foodpubs/fn255.pdfNOTE: This publication requires Adobe Acrobat Reader software to read -- if you don't have this on your computer, a free version is available at: http://www.adobe.com/products/acrobat/readstep2.html
Utah State University Cooperative Extension has a chart providing basic ingredient substitutions. It also provides an equivalent measures section at the end.
Preparing Healthy Food: How To Modify a Recipe
www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~ohioline/hyg-fact/5000/5543.htmlOhio State University Extension's Fact Sheet explains how to substitute ingredients to make recipes more nutritious or lower in fat.
Food and Nutrition Solutions
www.ag.uiuc.edu/~robsond/solutions/nutrition/docs/janan322.htmlUniversity of Illinois Cooperative Extension Service gives basic ingredient substitutions.
Ingredient Substitutions
www.colostate.edu/Depts/CoopExt/PUBS/FOODNUT/09329.pdfNOTE: This publication requires Adobe Acrobat Reader software to read -- if you don't have this on your computer, a free version is available at: www.adobe.com/products/acrobat/readstep.html
Colorado State University Cooperative Extension has a table providing basic ingredient substitutions.
The Cook's Thesaurus
www.foodsubs.comThis site offers thousands of substitution suggestions.
Spice Advice
www.spiceadvice.comCheck the "Spice Encyclopedia" and "Spice Useage Tips" If you don't have the spice specified in a recipe, these may give you ideas of spices you could substitute.
Sweetners
www.foodandhealth.com/links/Food_Links/SweetenersFood and Health Communications gives links to various sources of information on how to use sugar substitutes.
Food Lover's Companion
www.epicurious.com/run/fooddictionary/homeIf you've never heard of one of the ingredients in a recipe and have no idea of what you could substitute, this online food dictionary of more than 4,000 items from Epicurious may help you out.
Home Baking
www.homebaking.orgVisit this site to access links to food companies and organizations, an ingredient glossary and an "Ask the Experts" (under "Educator Resources").
Ingredient Substitution Books
The following books and cookbook were cited most frequently as sources of ingredient substitution information. Several other cookbooks may also provide basic ingredient substitution charts. Sometimes, you'll find information on substituting foods in a section or sections of a cookbook where the major ingredients featured in the recipes are described.
Resnik, Linda and Brock, Dee. Food FAQs -- Substitutions, Yields and Equivalents. Tyler, Texas: FAQs Press. 2000.
American Home Economics Association. Handbook of Food Preparation. 9th edition. 1993. There is a chart in this book on ingredient substitutions.
Rombauer, I., and Becker, M.R. Joy of Cooking. New York: Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc. Older editions prior to the new 1997 version have an extensive chart of ingredient substitutions.
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